Media, Technology, and Learning
Learning
Learning is the development of new knowledge, skills, or attitudes as an individual interacts with information and the environment. The learning environment in cludes the physical facilities, the psychological atmos phere, instructional methods, media, and technology Learning takes place all the time. We learn things by walking down the street, watching TV, surfing the Net, conversing with other people, or just by observing what goes on around us. This type of incidental learning is not our major interest as education professionals. Rather, we are concerned primarily with the learning that takes place in response to our instructional efforts. How we design and arrange instruction has a great deal to do not only with what is learned but also with how learners use what they learn.
Next we introduce the vari ous types of media, which we will explore in later chap- ters. The concrete-abstract continuum is explained. We describe various roles of media in learning and present different methods, such as presentations, demonstra tions, and discussion. The chapter concludes with a dis cussion of technology as it relates to learning.
Psychological Perspectives on Learning
How instructors view the role of media and technology in the classroom depends very much on their belief about how people lear. Over the past half century there have been several dominant theories of learning. Each has implications for instruction in general and for the use of technology specifically. We will briefly survey each of the major perspectives on leaming and discuss their implications. Learning theories and their impact on teaching decisions are discussed in greater detail by Driscoll (1994).
Behaviorist Perspective.
In the mid 1950s, the focus of learning research started to shift from stimulus design (communication) to leamer response to stimuli. At the forefront of this movement was B. F. Skinner, a psychologist at Harvard University Skinner was a proponent of behaviorism but with an important difference: he was interested in voluntary behavior, such as learning new skills, rather than reflexive behavior, as illustrated by Pavlov’s famous salivating dog. He demonstrated that the behavior of an organism could be shaped by reinforcing, or rewarding, the desired re sponses to the environment. Skinner based his learning theory, known as reinforcement theory, on a series of experiments with pigeons, and he reasoned that the same procedures could be used with humans. The result was the emergence of programmed instruction, a tech nique of leading a learner through a series of instruc tional steps to a desired level of performance. Unlike earlier learning research, Skinner’s work led directly to improved instructional design.
Cognitivist Perspective
Cognitivists, on the other hand, are making a primary contribution to learning theory and instructional design by creating models of how learners receive, process, and manipulate information. Cognitiviem leads to a different way of looking at familiae learning patterns. For example, behaviorists simply state that practice strengthens the re sponse to a stimulus. Cognitivists create a mental model of short-term and long-term memory New information is stored in short-term memory, where it is “rehearsed” un til ready to be moved in long-term memory. If the infor mation is not seheaned, it fades from short-term memory. Learners then combine the information and skills in long term memory to develop cognitive strategies, or skills for dealing with complex tasks Cognitivists have a broader perception of independent learning than that held by behaviorists: Students are less dependent on the guiding hand of the program designer and rely more on their own cognitive strategies in using available learning resources.
Schemata
Schemata (singular, schema) are the mental structures by which individuals organize their perceived environment. Schemata are adapted or changed during mental development and learning. They are used to identify, process, and store incoming infor mation and can be thought of as categories individuals use to classify specific information and experiences.
Assimilation
Assimilation is the cognitive process by which a learner integrates new information and experiences into existing schemata. Piaget borrowed the term from biology, where it refers to the process by which an organism cats food, digests it, and then assim ilates or changes it into a usable form.
During learning, assimilation results from experiences. With new experiences, the schema expands in size but does not change its basic structure. Using the process of assimilation, the individual attempts to place new concepts into existing schemata.
Accommodation
The process of modifying exist ing schemata or creating new ones is called accommo dation. Because schemata change with experience, adult learners have a broader and more elaborate range of schemata than do children.
Constructivist Perspective
Constructivism is a movement that extends beyond the beliefs of the cognitivist. It considers the engagement of students in meaningful experiences as the essence of learning. The shift is from passive transfer of information to active problem solving. Constructivists emphasize that learners create their own interpretations of the world of information. They contrast their perspective with those of the behaviorists or cognitivists, who believe that the mind can be “mapped” by the instructor. The constructivist will argue that students situate the learning experience within their own experience and that the goal of instruction is not to teach information but to create situations so that students can interpret information for their own understanding The role of instruction is not to dispense facts but to pro vide students with ways to assemble knowledge. The con structivist believes that learning occurs most effectively when students are engaged in authentic tasks that relate to meaningful contexts. The ultimate measure of learn ing is therefore based on the ability of the student to use knowledge to facilitate thinking in real life.
Social-Psychological Perspective
Social-psychology is another well-established tradition in the study of instruction and learning. Social psychologists look at the effects of the social organization of the class room on learning. What is the group structure of the classroom-independent study, small groups, or the class as a whole? What is the authority structure-how much control do students have over their own activities? And what is the reward structure-is cooperation rather than competition fostered?
In recent years, researchers such as Robert Slavin have taken the position that cooperative learning is both more effective and more socially beneficial than com petitive and individualistic learning (Slavin, 1990). Slavin developed a set of cooperative learning tech niques that embodies the principles of small-group collaboration, learner controlled instruction, and rewards based on group achievement.
THE ROLES OF MEDIA IN LEARNING
Media can serve many roles in learning. The instruction may be dependent on the presence of a teacher (ie., in structor directed). Even in this situation, media may be heavily used by the teacher. On the other hand, the in struction may not require a teacher. Such student-directed instruction is often called “self-instruction” even though it is in fact guided by whoever designed the media.
Instructor-Directed Instruction
The most common use of media in an instructional sit uation is for supplemental support of the “live” instruc tor in the classroom (Figure 1.6). Certainly, properly designed instructional media can enhance and promote learning and support teacher-based instruction. But effectiveness depends on the instructor. Research has long indicated the importance of the instructor’s role in effective use of instructional media. For example, early studies showed that when teachers introduced films, relating them to learning objectives, the amount of information students gained from films increased (Wittich & Fowlkes, 1946).
Instructor-Independent Instruction
Media can also be used effectively in formal educationsituations where a teacher is not available or is workingwith other students (Figure 1.7). Media are often”packaged” for this purpose: objectives are listed, guidance in achieving objectives is given, materials are assembled, and self-evaluation guidelines are provided. In informal educational settings, media such as videocas settes and computer courseware can be used by trainees at the worksite or at home. In some instances an in structor may be available for consultation via telephone.
Cooperative learning is closely related to self instruction. As students work together in groups or in collaboration with the teacher on learning projects, they take more responsibility for learning. Newer technolo gies such as hypermedia (see Chapter 10) encourage stu dents to rely on their own cognitive strategies in learning. Cooperative learning with hypermedia can lead to stimulating interchanges among students as they go through and discuss their response to the materials.
Thematic Instruction
Distance Education
METHODS
Ten Method Categories
- Presentation
- Demonstration
- Discussion
- Drill-and-Practice
- Tutorial
- Cooperative Learning
- Gaming
- Stimulation
- Discovery
- Problem Solving
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