Visual Principles

THE ROLES OF VISUALS IN INSTRUCTION

Attempts to make broad generalizations about the role of visuals in learning invariably fail to yield simple answers. For example, a major synthesis of research stud ies comparing visual-based lessons (those using photographs, overhead transparencies, video, and the like) with conventional instruction indicated a small overall superiority in achievement for students who ex perienced the visual treatment (Cohen, Ebeling, & Ku lik, 1981). However, on closer examination it was found that the degree of superiority depended on many fac tors, including the subject matter and the utilization practices of the teacher. As discussed in Chapter 3, indi vidual students vary in terms of their visual "intelligence" and in the way they process and use visual information.

One role that visuals definitely play is to provide at concrete referent for ideas. Words don't look or sound (usually) like the thing they stand for, but visuals are iconic-that is, they have some resemblance to the thing they represent (see Dale's Cone of Experience in Chapter 1). As such, they serve as a more easily remembered link to the original idea (Figure 5.2). Visuals can also: motivate learners by attracting their attention, holding their attention, and generating emotional responses.

VISUAL LITERACY

Consider the sorts of visuals that are used every day for important communication purposes, such as the emergency information cards in airplanes (Figure 5.4) or highway signs that warn of dangerous curves or obstructions. They work only to the extent that you are "literate" in the conventions of that medium. Whereas the term literacy once was used only to refer to reading and writing of verbal information, today we use the term visual literacy to refer to the learned ability to interpret visual messages accurately and to create such messages. Research on visual literacy examines the influence of the visual processing system on the acquisition of knowledge, skills, and attitudes. Interest in visual literacy has grown to the point that it has become a professional interest area. The International Visual Literacy Association (IVLA), which conducts formal meetings and publishes its own periodical, is an organization established for professionals involved in visual literacy.

Decoding: Interpreting Visuals

Seeing a visual does not automatically ensure that one. will learn from it. Learners must be guided toward correct decoding of visuals. One aspect of visual literacy, then, in the skill of interpreting and creating meaning from surrounding stimuli.

Encoding: Creating Visuals

Another route to visual literacy is through student cre ation of visual presentations. Just as writing can spur reading, producing media can be a highly effective way of understanding media.

Most older students have access to a camera. For ex ample, you could encourage students to present reports to the class by carefully selecting sets of 35mm slides, which can help them to develop their aesthetic talents. The video camcorder is another convenient tool for stu dents to practice creating and presenting ideas and events pictorially. Or, students can scan photos or drawings into a computer-generated presentation using software such as PowerPoint.

GOALS OF VISUAL DESIGN

What does a professional visual designer think about when facing a visual design problem? The considera tions are too numerous and complex to be spelled out fully here. However, there are a few fundamental prin ciples of visual design that even novices may pursue. For purposes of information and instruction, good visual design tries to achieve at least four basic goals in terms of improving communication:

• Ensure legibility.
• Reduce the effort required to interpret the message.
• Increase the viewer's active engagement with the message. 
• Focus attention on the most important parts of the message.

PROCESSES OF VISUAL DESIGN

This section outlines a set of procedures for carrying out visual design so as to enhance these goals. Throughout this chapter and in Chapters 4 and 6 are specific examples of these procedures and explanations of how these decisions contribute to reaching the four basic goals of visual design. In this chapter, see "How to... Use Color in In structional Materials" and "How to... Design Computer Screens;" in Chapter 4 see "How to... Design Text" and "How to... Design Bulletin Boards";-and in Chapter 6

see "How to... Design Overhead Transparencies." Teachers, designers, and others who create visual and verbal/visual displays face a series of design decisions about how to arrange the elements to achieve their goals. We will group these decisions into three sets:

1. Elements: Selecting and assembling the verbal/visual elements to incorporate into the display

2. Pattern: Choosing an underlying pattern for the elements of the display 

3. Arrangement: Arranging the individual elements within the underlying pattern

As a final step, check your decisions against the goals and revise as needed.

VISUAL PLANNING TOOLS

This chapter emphasizes the design decisions that you must make, not the technical steps involved in the pro duction processes. For those encountering visual design for the first time, don't expect the process to be quick. or easy, especially at the beginning. These skills grow with practice, and with practice you will find yourself thinking visually more often as you grapple with in structional problems.

Storyboard

If you are designing a series of visuals such as for several related overhead transparencies, a slide set, a video sequence, or a series of computer screens-storyboarding is a handy method of planning. This technique, bor rowed from film and video production, allows you to cre atively arrange and rearrange a whole sequence of thumbnail sketches. In storyboarding, you place on a card or piece of paper a sketch or some other simple rep resentation of the visual you plan to use along with the narration and production notes that link the visuals to the narration. After developing a series of such cards, place them in rough sequence on a flat surface or on a story board holder.

Types of Letters

A variety of lettering techniques for visuals exists. The simplest is freehand lettering with markers and felt-tip pens, which come in an array of colors and sizes. You also may cut letters from construction paper or other materials. Precut letters are available in stationery and office supply stores. The letters are easy to use because most come with an adhesive backing; however, they are rather expensive.

Drawing, Sketching, and Cartooning 

As we will describe in Chapter 6, drawings, sketches, and cartoons are visuals that can enhance learning. There are many sources of these in magazines, textbooks, and advertisements. One often overlooked source is you. You don't have to be an artist to draw. There are some basic guidelines and many how-to books that can help you communicate effectively using these graphic media.

DIGITAL IMAGES

As computer technologies advance, creating visual im ages has moved into the digital world. Students may use digital cameras to create originals or may transfer images into digital formats using scanners.

Digital imaging allows users to capture, edit, display, share, and network still and video images. The technol ogy makes the process very easy for both teachers and students. Users may send images to other digital devices, store them in computers, or share them through the Internet. Digital images are another example of nonlinear media. The picture and video quality provides clearer details and richer colors than their analog counterparts.

Digital Cameras

Digital cameras are small and lightweight with fewer moving parts than traditional cameras. Instead of squinting through a tiny optical viewfinder, most digital cameras permit you to see a large image displayed on the back of the camera before you take the "picture." They capture the images directly onto a 3.5-inch floppy. disk or special memory card instead of film. Conse quently there is no waiting for film processing. The "photo" can be viewed immediately using a screen on the back of the camera. You can delete images you don't want and reshoot on the spot until you get exactly what you want.

Scanners

Scanners work with computers to transfer existing visual images, such as drawings or photographs, into digitized computer graphic files. As with digital photographs, students may quickly incorporate scanned images into a word processing file or enhance or change them using software. The flatbed scanner looks like the top of a photocopy machine and is connected to the computer with special cables. The user lifts the lid of the scanner and places the image face down on the glass surface. Special software on the computer operates the scanner. Inside the scan ner is a lens or mirror system to focus the light reflected from the original into a charge-coupled device (CCD). This device changes the optical image into electrical charges, which in turn are converted into a digital form acceptable by a computer.

Photo CDs

An alternative for digital images that is less expensive and that uses equipment that might already be in schools is the photo CD. Students may use a regular camera and film to take photographs. Then, when hav ing the film developed, instead of getting glossy prints, they can have their photographs stored on a CD-ROM. One CD can store 100 to 150 images. A unique feature of this technology is that additional pictures can be added to the CD at a later date.